Cities on Mars: how architects design life on the Red Planet

Designing a city on Mars is perhaps the most extreme architectural brief imaginable. There is no breathable air and no protective magnetic field, temperatures drop far below freezing, and every kilogram of material brought from Earth takes enormous effort.

Even so, architects, engineers and space agencies are working on the subject in earnest. Not only because it may one day be necessary, but because solutions devised for Mars teach us how to build more frugally and more intelligently here too.

What are concepts for cities on Mars?

They are designs for living, working and research spaces that could sustain human life on Mars over long periods. At this stage they exist as architectural concepts, competition entries, engineering prototypes and simulation bases on Earth – no human has yet set foot on the Red Planet.

Most concepts go through three stages: a small research base for a handful of people, a growing settlement and, in the distant future, a self-sustaining city.

What conditions must architecture on Mars cope with?

The main challenges are radiation, cold, thin air and the supply of materials.

• Radiation – with no dense atmosphere and no global magnetic field, the surface is exposed to cosmic and solar radiation. Habitats need a thick protective shell or must be partly underground.
• Atmosphere – very thin and composed mainly of carbon dioxide. Every habitable space must be airtight and pressurised, much like a submarine.
• Temperature – average temperatures are well below freezing, with large swings between day and night.
• Dust – fine dust and dust storms coat solar panels and get into machinery.
• Gravity – roughly a third of Earth's; its long-term effect on the human body is still being studied.
• Logistics – deliveries from Earth are rare and expensive, so construction must rely as much as possible on local resources.

What do the architectural solutions look like?

Most concepts combine several approaches, each with its own pros and cons.

Inflatable modules

Light to transport and quick to deploy. On their own they offer poor protection from radiation, so they are often covered with heaped Martian regolith.

3D-printed shells

Robots print walls from a mix of local regolith and a binder. The advantage is that almost no building material has to be shipped from Earth.

Underground and semi-underground spaces

Natural caves and lava tubes would offer ready-made protection from radiation and temperature swings. The drawbacks are the lack of daylight and difficult access.

Ice shells

Some concepts use water ice as an envelope – it lets light through while also blocking part of the radiation.

What they all have in common is that form is a matter of physics, not style: domes, cylinders and shells withstand internal pressure best.

Energy and the indoor environment

Without reliable energy there is no life on Mars. Solar panels deliver less power than on Earth and need to be cleared of dust, so many concepts also include compact nuclear power sources. Inside, architects propose greenhouses that provide food, humidity and a green view at the same time, shared spaces for the crew and artificial lighting that follows the day–night rhythm.

Which real projects and prototypes exist?

A number of projects have moved from drawings to real-world testing.

• NASA 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge – a NASA competition in which teams design and print scale habitat modules for Mars. Among the winners is MARSHA by AI SpaceFactory – a tall vertical shell printed from a composite material.
• Mars Dune Alpha, Houston – a 3D-printed habitat printed by ICON to a design developed with the architecture practice BIG. It is used in NASA's CHAPEA programme, in which crews live for extended periods in isolation that simulates a mission to Mars.
• Mars Desert Research Station, Utah – a simulation station run by the Mars Society in the desert, where teams test daily routines, procedures and technologies for living on Mars.
• SpaceX Starship – Elon Musk's company is developing the Starship rocket with the ambition of eventually carrying people and cargo to Mars, and has announced a long-term goal of a self-sustaining city.
• Mars One – a Dutch project that announced plans for a permanent colony, but the company behind it went bankrupt in 2019. Its story is a useful reminder of how far bold announcements can be from reality.

How would a city on Mars be built, step by step?

Every serious scenario starts with robots and small bases, not cities.

1. Exploration – robotic missions map the terrain and search for underground ice and stable building sites.
2. Delivery of equipment – energy systems, construction robots and supplies arrive before people do.
3. Extraction of local resources – water from ice, oxygen from the atmosphere, building material from regolith.
4. Building the first base – protected modules for a small crew, often partly covered with regolith.
5. Closed-loop systems – recycling air and water, growing food in greenhouses.
6. Expansion – linking modules into a network, with shared spaces, workshops and laboratories.
7. Self-sufficiency – gradually reducing dependence on supplies from Earth.

What can architecture on Earth learn from Mars?

Far more than it might seem. Building with a minimum of imported materials, 3D printing from local soil, closed water and energy cycles, airtight and very well-insulated envelopes – all of these apply directly to sustainable construction on Earth.

There is a more human lesson too. Simulation missions show how much daylight, plants, personal space and a view matter to people's wellbeing in a confined environment. These are the same questions we ask when designing hospitals, student halls or small urban homes.

Even visualisation plays a part: before any prototype is built, concepts are tested in digital models and in virtual reality, where future occupants can “step inside” and get a feel for the scale.

Our approach at DARCH Projects

Mars is far away, but the tools for designing the future are already here. We work with virtual reality and architectural animation that let you walk through a concept that does not yet exist – whether a bold vision or your future home.

Frequently asked questions

When will people live on Mars?

No one can give a reliable date. Space agencies and private companies such as SpaceX have announced ambitions for crewed missions, but timelines have repeatedly slipped. Before a permanent settlement is possible, there must be successful crewed flights, safe landings, systems for extracting water and oxygen, and solutions for radiation protection. For now, life on Mars is being tested in simulations on Earth.

What will houses on Mars be built from?

The main idea is to use local materials, because shipping them from Earth is extremely expensive. Martian regolith can be mixed with a binder and printed with 3D printers, while ice can serve as a protective shell. Inflatable modules brought from Earth will probably be combined with heaped regolith to shield occupants from radiation.

What is Mars Dune Alpha?

Mars Dune Alpha is a 3D-printed habitat at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, printed by ICON to a design created jointly with the architecture practice BIG. It is used in the CHAPEA programme, in which volunteers live inside it for extended periods so researchers can study how people cope with isolation, limited resources and daily tasks similar to a mission to Mars.

Why do habitats on Mars need to be underground or covered?

Because Mars lacks a dense atmosphere and a global magnetic field to stop cosmic and solar radiation. A thick layer of regolith, ice or rock over a habitat reduces the radiation dose people receive. Underground spaces and natural lava tubes also protect against sharp temperature swings and micrometeorites, which makes them attractive for future bases.